what-weve-shed-participating in-the-lottery

what-weve-shed-participating in-the-lottery

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t my nearby usefulness shop, and Pretty much surely at yours, much too, it can be done to buy upward of fifty various sorts of scratch-off lottery tickets. To do so, you should be at the least eighteen decades old, Although the tickets appear to be the décor for a kindergarten classroom. The dominant themes are primary hues, dollar symptoms, and glossy, as in gold bars, capturing stars, glinting horseshoes, and stacks of silver coins. When you're taking a look at a strong wall of these, they also resemble—determined by the palette, font possibilities, and basic flashy hecticness—the mid-nineties Internet. A number of them are named for other game titles, including the Monopoly X5, the Double Blackjack, and the Family members Feud, but most are clear-cut about the point of buying them: Demonstrate Me $ten,000!, $100,000 Blessed, Revenue Explosion, Cash Is King, Blazing Very hot Dollars, Massive Cash Riches. If the style runs towards Fast Ca$h or Purple Ball Money Doubler, you can buy one particular for simply a buck; if you prefer VIP Club or $two,000,000 Gold Hurry, a single ticket will set you back again 30 bucks. All this is prior to deciding to get to your Choose 3, Select four, Powerball, and Mega Millions tickets, which happen to be comparatively staid in physical appearance—they seem like Scantron sheets—and they are printed out at the time of acquire.

The strangest of the numerous strange factors about these tickets is always that, contrary to other ease-keep staples—Utz potato chips, Entenmann’s cinnamon-swirl buns, $one.98 bottles of wine—They can be introduced for you by your state authorities. Only Alabama, Alaska, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah are certainly not during the small business of selling lottery tickets. Everywhere you go else, Blazing Very hot Income and its ilk are, like condition parks and driver’s licenses, a government service.

How this came being is the subject of an excellent new reserve, “For just a Dollar and also a Aspiration: Condition Lotteries in Modern The united states,” through the historian Jonathan D. Cohen. At the guts of Cohen’s book is usually a peculiar contradiction: within the 1 hand, the lottery is vastly fewer worthwhile than its proponents allow it to be out to get, a deception which has arrive in the expense of community coffers and general public products and services. However, it's so popular that it is both really lucrative for the non-public providers that make and offer tickets and fiscally crippling for its most focused players. A single in two American adults buys a lottery ticket at the very least every year, one in 4 purchases one no less than after per month, and essentially the most avid players invest in them at prices That may shock you. At my regional keep, some shoppers snap up entire rolls—in a minimal, three hundred dollars’ truly worth of tickets—and Other folks exhibit up each morning, Participate in until eventually they earn anything, then return during the night and do it once more. All this, recurring daily at grocery suppliers and liquor retailers and mini-marts across the country, renders the lottery a ninety-one particular-billion-dollar enterprise. “Us citizens commit more on lottery tickets on a yearly basis than on cigarettes, coffee, or smartphones,” Cohen writes, “and they shell out much more on lottery tickets annually than on online video streaming expert services, concert tickets, publications, and Motion picture tickets mixed.”

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As All those two sets of comparisons recommend, lottery tickets can look like either a benign form of amusement or a perilous addiction. The query that lurks inside “To get a Greenback and a Dream” is which classification they actually belong to—and, appropriately, regardless of whether governments billed with marketing the overall welfare needs to be inside the business of manufacturing them, publicizing them, and profiting from them.

Lotteries are an ancient pastime. They have been common from the Roman Empire—Nero was a supporter of these; make of that what you are going to—and are attested to all through the Bible, in which the casting of plenty is utilized for every little thing from picking the next king of Israel to selecting who can get to maintain Jesus’ clothes following the Crucifixion. In many of those early occasions, they were being deployed both to be a kind of occasion match—throughout Roman Saturnalias, tickets ended up distributed totally free to friends, several of whom received extravagant prizes—or as a method of divining God’s will. Generally, nevertheless, lotteries ended up organized to raise revenue for community is effective. The earliest known version of keno dates for the Han dynasty and is said to own aided pay for the Great Wall of China. Two generations later, Caesar Augustus started off a lottery to subsidize repairs for town of Rome.

By the fourteen-hundreds, the observe was widespread from the Lower Nations, which relied on lotteries to make city fortifications and, later, to deliver charity with the bad. Before long adequate, the trend manufactured its way to England, wherever, in 1567, Queen Elizabeth I chartered the country’s first lottery, designating its revenue for “reparation of your Havens and strength of the Realme.” Tickets Price 10 shillings, a significant sum back then, and, As well as the potential prize value, each served like a get-out-of-jail-no cost card, virtually; every lottery participant was entitled to immunity from arrest, except for certain felonies like piracy, murder, and treason.

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The lottery did not much distribute to The us from England as support spread England into The usa: the ecu settlement on the continent was financed partly through lotteries. They then became prevalent inside the colonies on their own, Irrespective of sturdy Protestant proscriptions in opposition to gambling. In the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which held its to start with authorized lottery in 1745, dice and taking part in playing cards had been forbidden even in private residences.

That contradiction may be spelled out partly by exigency; no matter what its ethical bent, early The united states was shorter on earnings and lengthy on the necessity for public works. Over time, In addition, it became, as Cohen notes, “defined politically by its aversion to taxation.” That made the lottery an appealing option for increasing dollars, which was utilized for funding every little thing from civil defense to the development of churches. Harvard, Yale, and Princeton were all financed partly by lotteries, plus the Continental Congress attempted to implement 1 that can help buy the Revolutionary War. (Lotteries formed a unusual place of settlement in between Thomas Jefferson, who regarded them as not Considerably riskier than farming, and Alexander Hamilton, who grasped what would change into their essence: that everybody “would like a small possibility of winning a great offer to an incredible probability of winning very little.”) And, like Just about almost everything else in early The united states, lotteries were being twisted up Together with the slave trade, in some cases in unpredictable approaches. George Washington after managed a Virginia-based mostly lottery whose prizes provided human beings, and one previously enslaved man, Denmark Vesey, bought his liberty just after winning a South Carolina lottery and went on to foment a slave rebellion.

This Original era of the American lottery was brought to an conclude by common issue about mismanagement and malfeasance. Between 1833 and 1880, every single state but 1 banned the practice, leaving just the infamously corrupt Louisiana Condition Lottery Organization in operation. Despite its identify, the L.S.L.C. properly operated across the country, sending adverts and marketing tickets by mail. So effective was it that, as Cohen clarifies, it took the federal federal government to get rid of it off; in 1890, Congress passed a legislation prohibiting the interstate advertising or sale of lottery tickets, thereby devastating the Louisiana video game and, for the time being, putting a halt to point out lotteries in America.

Predictably, inside the absence of authorized lotteries, illegal types flourished—earlier mentioned all, quantities online games, which awarded day by day prizes for correctly guessing A 3-digit selection. To avoid allegations that the sport was mounted, on a daily basis’s successful quantity was according to a publicly accessible but constantly switching resource, such as the amount of cash traded within the New York Stock Exchange. Numbers video games have been enormously well-known everywhere you go—in 1964, they raked in two hundred million dollars, about two billion in right now’s revenue, in New York City on your own—but In particular so in Black communities, the place they presented a Substantially necessary supply of income. This was legitimate mainly for his or her organizers and runners, whose ranks integrated Ella Fitzgerald and Malcolm X, but sometimes also for gamers who lucked right into a windfall, like Luther Theophilus Powell, who won 10 thousand pounds over a 20-five dollar guess while in the nineteen-fifties and applied it to get a household in Queens for his wife, daughter, and young son, Colin Powell.

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At some point, quantities game titles proved so profitable which they were being taken over by organized criminal offense, occasionally with the help of police officers who recognized bribes to shut down African American operators. Dutch Schultz and Vito Genovese both equally utilized the sport to help you bankroll their functions, plus the Winter Hill Gang, Whitey Bulger’s crew, got its begin partly by running quantities in Somerville, outdoors Boston. From the nineteen-fifties, increasing worry with regard to the electricity and achieve of the Mob culminated in the Senate investigation, the Kefauver committee, which judged profits from gambling to get the primary fiscal motor of criminal offense syndicates in the usa. This declaration, as well as the torrent of reports protection it produced, experienced a paradoxical outcome: it made lottery games look so worthwhile that, immediately after a long time of dismissing them as inappropriate for that honorable small business of community provider, condition governments once again commenced to consider having in to the just take.

It's at this stage that Cohen’s narrative genuinely gets likely; Even though he nods on the early history with the lottery, he focusses mainly on its fashionable incarnation. This commenced, he argues, when expanding consciousness about all The cash to become created from the gambling business collided with a crisis in state funding. Within the nineteen-sixties, under the burden of the swelling inhabitants, mounting inflation, and the expense of the Vietnam War, The usa’s prosperity began to wane. For a lot of states, Particularly the ones that delivered a generous social basic safety net, balancing the spending plan grew to become increasingly tricky with no possibly elevating taxes or chopping companies. The issue was that the two solutions had been really unpopular with voters.

For politicians confronting this issue, the lottery gave the impression to be a perfect Remedy: a means to keep up current companies devoid of climbing taxes—and for that reason devoid of having punished for the polls. For them, Cohen writes, lotteries ended up in essence “budgetary miracles, the possibility for states to create earnings look seemingly out of slim air.” By way of example, in New Jersey, which had no profits tax, no cash flow tax, and no hunger for instituting either a person, legislators claimed that a lottery would bring in many millions of pounds, therefore relieving them of the necessity to ever again ponder the uncomfortable subject matter of taxation.

Dismissing very long-standing moral objections to your lottery, these new advocates reasoned that, given that folks had been planning to gamble anyway, the condition may well at the same time pocket the profits. That argument experienced its boundaries—by its logic, governments must also market heroin—nevertheless it gave ethical deal with to people that permitted of lotteries for other motives. Numerous white voters, Cohen writes, supported legalization simply because they believed state-run gambling would mostly bring in Black numbers players, who'd then foot the Invoice for services that those white voters didn’t wish to buy in any case, including superior colleges within the urban locations they'd these days fled. (In point of fact, the oft-recurring assert that legalizing the lottery would basically decriminalize present-day gamblers instead of produce new kinds of all races proved dramatically wrong.) In the meantime, several African American voters supported legalization as they thought that it might ease their friction Along with the law enforcement, for whom figures video games had lengthy served to be a explanation—often legitimate, from time to time not—to interrogate and imprison folks of coloration.

Lottery opponents, nonetheless, questioned both of those the ethics of funding public companies as a result of gambling as well as the sum of money that states genuinely stood to realize. These types of critics hailed from either side of your political aisle and all walks of life, but essentially the most vociferous of them had been devout Protestants, who regarded government-sanctioned lotteries as morally unconscionable. (Catholics, Against this, have been overwhelmingly pro-lottery, performed it in large quantities the moment it was legalized, and reliably flocked to other gambling game titles at the same time; Cohen cites the staggering undeniable fact that, in 1978, “bingo game titles hosted by Ohio Catholic large universities took in more cash than the point out’s lottery.”) As one Methodist minister and anti-lottery activist declared at some time, “You can find extra arrangement amid Protestant groups on the adverse influence of gambling than on almost every other social situation, including the issues of abortion, Alcoholic beverages, and homosexuality.” These kinds of adverse effects involved fostering gambling addictions, sapping revenue from your poor, undermining simple civic and ethical beliefs by championing a route to prosperity that did not involve benefit or effort, and encouraging condition governments To maximise revenue even with the expense of their most susceptible citizens.

Even so legitimate these worries might have been, they have been largely dismissed. In 1964, New Hampshire, famously tax averse, approved the initial condition-run lottery of the fashionable era. Thirteen states followed in as many years, all of these during the Northeast and the Rust Belt. Meanwhile, as Cohen recounts, the country’s late-twentieth-century tax revolt intensified. In 1978, California passed Proposition 13, chopping residence taxes by Practically sixty for each cent and inspiring other states to stick to fit; in the early nineteen-eighties, with Ronald Reagan from the White Property, federal cash flowing into condition coffers declined. With Progressively more states casting all around for options to their budgetary crises which might not enrage an increasingly anti-tax electorate, the charm of your lottery spread south and west.

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As Cohen relates in Probably the most intriguing chapter of his ebook, All those pro-lottery forces experienced a powerful ally in Scientific Games, Inc., a lottery-ticket producer that initial built a reputation for by itself by groundbreaking scratch-off tickets. In combination with delivering instant benefits, these tickets, like Ikea furnishings, offer the enchantment of active participation, which provides gamers the illusion of doing exercises some control above the result. Scratch-off tickets débuted to great accomplishment in Massachusetts in 1974; by 1976, every state lottery had jumped within the bandwagon. But that triumph offered a challenge for Scientific Online games, because it meant the offered current market was saturated. To help keep increasing its enterprise, the business set about persuading more states to legalize the lottery. Starting during the late seventies, S.G.I. started employing lobbyists, contracting with advertising firms, producing astroturf citizens’ teams, and paying countless pounds to steer voters in Arizona, California, Colorado, Iowa, Missouri, Oregon, and also the District of Columbia to move lottery initiatives.

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Scientific Games wasn't the one firm delivering lottery companies, but its competitors had mainly eschewed lobbying, nominally outside of moral fears but really mainly because they were unwilling to invest cash they wouldn’t recoup whenever they didn’t land the ensuing contracts. S.G.I. obtained around this problem by ensuring that the lottery initiatives it backed contained language—allegedly meant to avoid the involvement of arranged criminal offense—that necessary extensive monetary disclosures not just from each of the executives at companies publishing a bid but from the many executives at their father or mother companies, much too. That need by yourself built the bidding process also burdensome to get worthwhile for S.G.I.’s chief competitor, Webcraft Games, as it was owned by Beatrice Foods, which at enough time was greater than Lockheed Martin, 3M, and Coca-Cola. The S.G.I.-supported initiatives also mandated tight timelines for that bidding approach, giving the corporation a setting up edge whilst rendering it nearly unachievable for anyone else to finish the paperwork in time.

Having said that dodgy this method may perhaps have already been, it worked. Just about every lottery initiative backed by S.G.I. succeeded—and, in each individual case, the company was rewarded having a contract. That meant its lobbying expenditure paid out off, spectacularly; in California, By way of example, S.G.I. expended $2.4 million to go a lottery initiative, then gained the resulting forty-million-greenback contract. Wins like that before long turned Scientific Online games into an unstoppable force throughout the lottery sector. By 1982, the organization experienced printed its five-billionth ticket and was manufacturing a million far more each hour. Concurrently, the lottery industry itself had come to be unstoppable, also—as a result of S.G.I. and the wave of legalizations, but in addition because of the introduction of the new edition of an exceedingly aged game of opportunity that, as Cohen writes, “fundamentally reshaped the location of lotteries in American society.”

Based on a betting game at first performed in seventeenth-century Genoa, lotto is just not self-evidently groundbreaking—or, for instance, self-evidently interesting. To Participate in, you guess a certain amount of figures from the specified assortment. The The big apple Lotto, for instance, demands six quantities among one and fifty-nine; the North Carolina lotto, five quantities among just one and forty-3. The percentages of having many of the quantities appropriate are absurdly minimal—which, paradoxically, is why lotto revolutionized the field.

Before the match was released, point out jackpots were reasonably modest. Their sizing was limited by the number of players, considering that payouts mirrored a proportion of ticket product sales, together with by condition lottery commissions, which set a cap on the prize cash; from 1964 to 1979, jackpots rarely exceeded 1,000,000 bucks. But lotto was a rollover sport: if a drawing was held and no-one gained—a common incidence, provided the percentages—players could keep shopping for tickets. For anyone profiting in the lottery, this made a virtuous cycle. Each and every time the pot bought greater, more and more people were tempted to get a ticket, as well as more people bought tickets, the bigger the pot became.

The entire point was massively counterintuitive—the worse the odds of winning became, the more and more people needed to play. Alexander Hamilton was right: to the standard human being, the distinction between one particular-in-three-million odds and 1-in-a few-hundred-million odds didn’t subject, even so the distinction between a three-million-greenback jackpot and a three-hundred-million-greenback jackpot mattered enormously. Recognizing this, lottery commissioners commenced lifting prize caps and incorporating more figures—say, 6 out of fifty in lieu of five from 30—Therefore generating the chance of profitable even smaller sized. The Ny Lotto introduced, in 1978, with just one-in-three.eight-million odds; today, the odds are a single in forty-five million.

In spite of all this, and to the despair of statisticians everywhere you go, lotto before long grew to become the nation’s most popular lottery game. But although ticket sales and prize winnings soared, they didn't achieve this Similarly across the country, because rollover jackpots disproportionately benefitted states with large populations and for that reason a lot more potential players. In reaction, smaller sized states banded jointly to form multistate lotteries, a craze that culminated in Powerball and Mega Tens of millions, each of which started off to be a collaboration amid A few states but is now played almost everywhere the lottery is legal. The resulting prizes are truly astronomical; this past July, two those who purchased a lottery ticket in Illinois bucked one particular-in-3-hundred-and-two-million odds to acquire a $1.34-billion Mega Hundreds of thousands jackpot.

In some respects, the fashionable American lotto activity is an item of technological improve; it couldn't have existed before Pc plans that enabled states to find out roughly quickly no matter if any one experienced bought a ticket Along with the successful figures. But Cohen can make a persuasive situation that it was also an item of cultural alter: the top of a shared reverence for Center-class security and also the rise, inside the nineteen-eighties, of the veneration of extravagant wealth. The years in which lotto reshaped the nationwide gambling scene have been the many years of deregulation and Reaganomics, Donald J. Trump and Alex P. Keaton, the première of “Existence from the Wealthy and Famous” in addition to a remake of “Brewster’s Tens of millions.” Pastors were being preaching the prosperity gospel; politicians were singing the praises on the unfettered totally free marketplace. Suddenly, Cohen writes, “it absolutely was no more taboo to collect a huge fortune; neither was it offensive to show it off. Prosperity—not the prosperity of blue-collar personnel although the fortunes of their bosses—grew to become a way of reasserting the bounty of capitalism.”

The irony, as Cohen notes, is that this obsession with unimaginable wealth, including the aspiration of hitting a multimillion-greenback lottery jackpot, corresponded into a decline in economic protection for most Performing people. Commencing while in the nineteen-seventies and accelerating during the nineteen-eighties, the earnings gap involving the loaded as well as poor widened, occupation safety and pensions eroded, overall health-care costs and unemployment rose, and, for youngsters born in All those decades, our lengthy-standing national assure—that training and exertions would render them far better off than their moms and dads—ceased to get accurate. Lifestyle, since it turned out, imitated the lottery: for some People in america, it had been getting tougher and more difficult to acquire.

The lottery was alleged to make All of this better, not worse. Its advocates claimed that, by filling condition coffers without having expanding point out taxes, it might maintain cash during the pockets of average citizens. But this premise, which led condition after condition to approve lotteries, was merely untrue. Proof from the very first legalized lotteries promptly set paid out to your fantasy which they would offer sufficient money to fund A great deal of your enterprise of managing a state. In New Jersey, exactly where proponents experienced imagined proceeds around the get of many hundreds of many bucks, the lottery brought in thirty-three million dollars in its to start with 12 months—about two per cent from the condition’s earnings.

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When figures like that proved standard of the era, legalization advocates, no more in the position to sell the lottery for a statewide silver bullet, ginned up other techniques instead, normally with the assistance of Scientific Games. Rather then argue that a lottery would float nearly all of a condition’s funds, they started boasting that it could cover just one line item, invariably a govt company which was preferred and nonpartisan—most frequently instruction, but in some cases elder treatment or public parks or support for veterans. Just one virtue of this narrower tactic was that it manufactured campaigning for legalization straightforward. A vote for your lottery wasn't a way of supporting gambling but a strategy for supporting veterans; a vote in opposition to the lottery was a vote versus schooling.

These strategiesตรวจ สลาก had been extraordinarily helpful but, just like the earlier ones, essentially misleading. For one thing, they, far too, wildly inflated the affect of lottery money on state funds. In California, where an S.G.I.-backed lottery initiative passed after a high-profile campaign touted it being a boon for schoolchildren, the ensuing income protected, during the lottery’s very first calendar year, about five per cent with the state instruction spending budget. As of this yr, based on the California Section of Instruction, lottery money accounts for around one particular for each cent of all K-twelve funding.

But which was not the worst of it. Many times, education and learning as well as other line products that served to influence people today to move lottery proposals didn't essentially get any further funding; instead, the profits went in to the point out’s basic fund. After this occurred in California, other states mandated that lottery dollars flow right into specified systems, but, as is so often the situation, when 1 loophole closes, Yet another just one opens. In Illinois, Florida, and Virginia, among the other states, the lottery earnings did indeed go to a specified education and learning fund—whereupon legislators offset All those gains by lessening the money coming in from common appropriations. In the end, Cohen writes, “the lottery supplanted, as opposed to supplemented, point out paying out on education and learning.”

Nowadays, in accordance with the National Convention of Point out Legislatures, lotteries bring in, on common, about a person for every cent of state income a year. Like all revenue, it issues, but whichever difference it helps make is offset by two issues. The 1st is the fact lotteries have made it more difficult than in the past to move much required tax will increase, mainly because, owing to years of noisy campaigning accompanied by many years of weighty advertising, the public wrongly thinks that faculties as well as other vital providers are lavishly supported by gambling cash. The 2nd would be that the revenue elevated by lotteries comes mostly from your individuals who can minimum afford to aspect with it. Each and every condition lottery is regressive, meaning that it will require a disproportionate toll on reduced-money citizens. Abundant persons do Perform the lottery, certainly; one of the largest-ever Powerball jackpots, a quarter of the billion pounds, was won by three asset supervisors from Greenwich, Connecticut. But the wealthy obtain much less tickets compared to the bad (except when jackpots solution ten figures); as a result of that and because their buys constitute a Considerably lesser share in their income, enjoying the lottery contains a far smaller impact on their pocketbooks. The real difference is often drastic: based on the buyer monetary organization Bankrate, players earning much more than fifty thousand pounds every year expend, on ordinary, a person for each cent of their once-a-year cash flow on lottery tickets; those building under 30 thousand pounds invest thirteen for every cent. Which means someone making twenty-seven thousand dollars loses some 30-5 hundred bucks for the lottery each and every year. To put that range in context, nearly sixty per cent of american citizens have lower than a thousand dollars in personal savings.

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Defenders on the lottery from time to time Forged it to be a tax over the Silly, indicating possibly that gamers don’t know how not likely they are to acquire or that they enjoy the recreation anyway. This implies that lottery paying out is an entirely particular in lieu of a partly structural conclusion, but In point of fact it can be attentive to financial fluctuation; as Cohen writes, “Lottery income maximize as incomes tumble, unemployment grows, and poverty prices increase.” Just like all business products and solutions, lottery sales also increase with publicity to advertising and marketing—and lottery merchandise are most greatly promoted in neighborhoods which are disproportionately weak, Black, or Latino. In Texas, wherever the bare minimum wage is $seven.25, You should buy a fifty-dollar scratch-off ticket at a Look at-cashing venue or pick up Powerball and Mega Millions tickets, like Snickers bars, although purchasing groceries in a Greenback General. Nor are condition lottery commissions earlier mentioned availing them selves from the psychology of habit. Anything regarding the lottery—from advertisement campaigns for the seem on the front on the tickets and The mathematics powering them—is made to maintain gamers coming back for more. None of the is particularly different within the approaches of tobacco organizations or online video-match companies. It just isn’t Ordinarily accomplished underneath the auspices of the government.

In the final web pages of “For a Dollar and a Aspiration,” Cohen, a good and meticulous collector of knowledge, ultimately places his thumb on the dimensions. Taking into consideration the regressive mother nature of point out lotteries, their predatory tactics, their role in fostering gambling addictions, the way in which they discourage typical taxation, and their fairly modest monetary contributions, he concludes which they “mustn't exist in the fashionable Usa.” As he acknowledges, this recommendation is unlikely for being taken at any time quickly; no point out has repealed its lottery in in excess of a hundred and 20-5 years. Nevertheless, he argues, we must always operate towards typical-feeling reforms, such as banning the sale of tickets on the internet, capping the expense of scratch-off tickets and the scale of lotto jackpots, and, Maybe most vital, closing a loophole that leaves lotteries exempt from File.T.C. regulation, and so no cost in the constraints of reality-in-promoting rules.

What would come about if condition lotteries waned in influence or vanished altogether? Cohen undoubtedly overreaches when he statements that, “with no such a blinding beacon, more Us residents is likely to be ready to think critically with regard to the economic forces which have degraded access to social mobility and also have built it harder for people today to attain fiscal stability.” But he is right that governments within a democratic Culture need to be within the organization of improving upon the percentages, not rigging the sport, and there are a great deal more equitable and helpful means with the condition to work with its mighty powers to enhance existence for its citizens. Because the California Lottery set it in a very 2013 promoting campaign, “Have confidence in one thing bigger.” ♦

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